311.11 
U tA 


THE 

HALF-TIME  SYSTEM 


IN  EDUCATION. 


By  D.  F.  LINCOLN,  M.D., 

Secretary  of  the  Department  of  Health,  American  Social 
Science  Association. 


The  present  paper  is  based  on  one  which  was  read  before 
the  Department  of  Health,  at  the  general  meeting  of  the 
Social  Science  Association,  in  September,  1877.  As  now 
given,  it' is  reprinted  from  the  Report  for  1878,  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts Bureau  of  Statistics  of  Labor.  It  had  received 
careful  revision  in  the  meantime,  with  some  additions.  It 
may  be  proper  to  state  that  for  the  positions  taken,  the 
author  is  to  be  held  responsible. 

The  discussion  to  which  the  present  paper  is  devoted  is 
based  on  personal  inquiry  and  observation,  largely  aided  by 
correspondence.  All  letters  used  were  written  within  seven 
months  of  the  date  of  this  publication.  An  attempt  has  also 
been  made  to  obtain  some  data  for  establishing  a physiological 
basis  for  the  argument  respecting  the  length  of  hours  of  study. 

The  appended  notes  contain  such  accounts  of  half-time 
schools  in  America  as  have  been  received,  with  some  remarks 
on  the  German  system. 


Definition. 

The  expression  “ half-time  system  ” is  employed  to  desig- 
nate a plan  for  educating  children  of  the  laboring  classes  by 


^•29  48 


4 


sending  them  to  school  for  three  hours  each  day,  or  there- 
abouts, and  employing  them  in  factories,  in  shops,  or  on 
farms,  for  the  rest  of  the  working  hours.  The  plan  is  modi- 
fied, in  a few  cases,  by  allowing  them  to  attend  school  for  the 
full  time,  and  to  work  on  full  time  on  alternate  days ; but  in 
most  cases  the  former  method  has  been  adopted,  by  which 
half  a day’s  schooling  and  half  or  three-quarters  of  a day’s 
work  are  had  each  day,*  with  a half  holiday  on  Saturday 
afternoon.  The  system  has  been  most  fully  carried  out  in 
England. 

The  English  half-time  schools  had  their  origin  in  enact- 
ments of  the  years  1883  and  1844,  and  subsequently;  in  ac- 
cordance with  which,  a great  many  sorts  of  manufacturing 
establishments  are  forbidden  to  employ  children  under  eight 
years  of  age ; while  children  from  eight  to  thirteen  are 
allowed  to  work  only  six  and  one-half  hours  a day,  and  must 
attend  school  at  least  three  hours  a day,  or  five  hours  on 
alternate  days,  at  any  school  the  parents  may  select.  A full 
account  of  the  history  of  these  schools  is  given  in  the  Sixth 
Annual  Report  (1875)  of  this  bureau.  The  system  has  been 
in  existence  for  over  forty  years  in  England  ; and  at  present 
100,000  children  are  taught  by  its  methods.  These  facts 
justify  our  careful  examination  of  the  grounds  for  adopting 
a system,  which,  at  the  outset,  was  as  much  an  innovation 
upon  English  usages  as  it  would  be  now  upon  our  own. 

It  is  remarkable  that  in  America  we  have  very  few  schools, 
if  indeed  there  be  any,  of  this  sort.  Exception  should  here 
be  made  of  public  semi-correctional  or  charitable  institutions ; 
and  also,  of  schools  which  keep  but  half  a day,  without 
provision  for  manual  employment,  — a plan  which  has  been 
adopted  in  quite  a number  of  cases.  The  definition  we  have 
given  requires  half  a day’s  work  with  half  a day’s  schooling, 
every  working  day  in  the  year,  excepting  holidays.  This 
excludes  even  the  one  at  Salem,1  where  the  children  attend 
only  half  a year,  returning  to  full-time  work  for  the  remain- 
ing half  year ; this  school,  however,  comes  nearer  tb  a half- 
time school  than  any  of  which  the  writer  has  information. 

A similar  school  (called  the  Indian  Orchard  School  2 from 

1 The  Naumkeag:  see  Report  of  this  Bureau  for  1875,  p.  28;  also  Note  A of 

this  Report.  4 

2 See  Note  B. 


5 


the  name  of  the  mill)  flourished  a few  years  ago  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Springfield,  but  for  extrinsic  reasons  was 
given  up. 

As  regards  the  other  States,  I have  received  information 
from  the  Superintendents  of  Education  in  Maine,  New  Hamp- 
shire, Vermont,  Rhode  Island,  Connecticut,  New  York,  and 
New  Jersey  ; and  the  answer  in  each  case  has  been  that  they 
are  not  aware  of  the  existence  of  such  schools  in  their  States. 

The  explanation  of  this  absence  is  not  far  to  seek.  We 
have  developed  in  America  a carefully  graded  system  of 
schools,  which  differ  very  little  in  the  various  cities  of  the 
Northern  States,  owing,  doubtless,  to  their  common  origin. 
Such  has  been  our  pride  in  these  schools,  and  such  the  real 
democratic  feeling  in  regard  to  them,  that  all  classes  have 
readily  sent  their  children  ; and  all  are  therefore  interested 
in  having  the  schools  well  kept.  Whether  well  or  ill,  they 
are  at  all  events  a representative  American  institution,  and 
their  existence  is  of  itself  an  adequate  reason  for  the  non- 
existence of  other  systems. 

England,  on  the  contrary,  was  compelled  in  the  earliest 
years  of  this  century  to  limit  by  legislative  action  the  exces- 
sive tasks  then  laid  on  great  numbers  of  children  in  factories. 
She  found,  before  long,  that  the  surest  way  to  defend  them 
from  the  cruelties  of  their  taskmasters  was  to  insist  on  their 
attendance  at  school  during  the  ordinary  period  of  a single 
session  every  day ; and  it  was  this  measure,  taken  at  first 
quite  as  much  from  a feeling  of  humanity  as  from  a sense  of 
the  need  of  popular  education,  that  formed  a first  step  in  the 
great  national  reform,  which,  within  a few  years,  has  assumed 
universal  extension.  The  history  of  factories  in  America 
has  been  very  different  from  this  ; and  the  change  in  our 
population,  which  has  flooded  us  with  foreign  illiteracy,  has 
been  comparatively  recent. 

The  enormous  difficulty  of  securing  concerted  action  from 
different  States  is,  no  doubt,  another  reason  why  no  half-time 
system  has  been  introduced.  Of  the  13,000  children  in 
Massachusetts  factories,  only  4,575  had  received  during  the 
year  the  legal  amount  of  schooling  (three  months)  in  1875. 
If  such  indifference  is  felt  toward  the  interests  of  this  unfor- 
tunate class  in  individual  States,  what  is  likely  to  be  the 
joint  action  of  several  States  in  a matter  where  the  profits  of 


6 


principals  and  the  wages  of  laborers  are  directly  dependent 
on  their  success  in  diminishing  the  requirement  of  schools,. — 
where,  in  fact,  State  is  in  closest  rivalry  with  State  for  com- 
mercial advantage  ? 

Limits  op  Mental  Application. 

It  seemed  to  the  author  that  the  principles  of  “ half-time  ” 
study  could  be  better  understood  if  a previous  statement 
were  made  of  the  amount  of  school  work  that  experience 
has  showli  to  be  desirable  for  children  of  different  ages.  The 
attempt  will  therefore  be  made  to  answer  the  following  pre- 
liminary question : — 

“ How  many  hours  ought  scholars  to  devote  to  school  work 
in  order  to  gain  the  best  results,  excluding  manual  labor  from 
the  problem  ? ” 

The  capacity  for  mental  labor  differs  very  widely  in  indi- 
viduals, and  at  different  ages.  The  young  adult  of  average 
power,  of  the  age  of  20  or  near  that,  may  devote  8 or  9 hours 
to  close  mental  work ; the  youth  in  high  schools,  5 or  6 ; the 
younger  child,  from  24  to  44.  No  greater  amount  can  be 
exacted  of  the  average  without  doing  harm.  The  following 
expressions  of  opinion  will  be  of  interest. 

In  regard  to  young  men  in  college,  a gentleman  of  great 
experience  and  judgment  as  a tutor  writes  as  follows:  “I 
should  be  inclined  to  say  that  no  young  man  could  study 
effectively  (as  our  young  men  are  now)  day  in  and  day  out, 
more  than  6 hours  a day,  exclusive  of  recitations ; with  three 
recitations  per  diem , I should  say  he  could  work  in  all  9 
hours  per  day.  If  you  get  up  to  four  recitations  or  lectures, 
I should  be  inclined  to  knock  off  one  hour  of  study,  putting 
9 hours  in  work  as  the  maximum.  I think  one  would  find 
any  increase  of  that  of  no  real  service.” 

A distinguished  graduate  of  Harvard  College,  who  worked 
faithfully  12  hours  a day  during  his  freshman  year,  and  from 
8 to  9 the  rest  of  the  time,  gives  me  his  opinion,  that  the 
average  working  power  (though  not  the  actual  amount  of 
work)  of  the  students  is  measured  by  the  latter  figures,  — 8 
or  9 hours. 

Professors  Crowell,  Tyler,  and  Hitchcock,  of  Amherst,  con- 
sider that  the  happiest  results  are  produced  by  a weekly 


( 


amount  of  48  hours  of  work,  or  8 hours  a day,  divided  between 
recitation  and  study  in  the  proportions  of  16  and  32  hours. 

Professor  Goodell  of  the  Massachusetts  Agricultural  Col- 
lege places  it,  after  having  tried  both  ways,  at  18  and  36 
hours  respectively,  or  one  hour  more  per  day.  The  actual 
work  amounts  to  about  194  and  39  hours,  or  nearly  10  hours 
daily,  besides  64  of  drill  and  farm  work  weekly.  The  results 
seem,  however,  to  be  quite  favorable,  as  far  as  the  actual 
health  of  the  young  men  is  concerned. 

At  the  West  Point  Military  Academy  the  daily  time 
assigned  by  the  printed  table  to  study  and  recitations  is 
about  10  hours  a day  during  the  six  cold  months.  The 
exceptional  circumstances  of  the  cadet’s  life,  his  entire  exclu- 
sion from  the  distractions  of  society  and  the  dangers  of  in- 
dulged appetite,  and  the  large  amount  of  active  bodily  work 
done  by  him,  enable  him  to  reach  the  maximum  of  mental 
application  consistent  with  perfect  health. 

The  great  number  of  hours  which  may  be  studied  by  the 
young  adult  is  the  result  of  two  circumstances : first,  he  is 
no  longer  obliged  to  devote  a great  part  of  his  physical 
energies  to  the  mere  act  of  growing ; second,  he  is  a speci- 
men of  a select  class  of  society,  capable  both  by  birth  and 
by  long  habit  of  an  amount  of  labor  which  is  impossible  to 
the  untrained  of  any  age.  At  the  period  of  pubert}^  or 
from  12  to  17  years,  there  is  a prevalent  opinion,  in  which 
I coincide,  that  not  more  than  5 or  6 hours  should  be  re- 
quired. In  a set  of  replies  to  inquiries  instituted  by  me  two 
years  ago,  there  are  communications  from  the  principals  of 
12  high  schools.  The  usual  attendance  per  week  in  these 
schools  was  25  hours,  three  exceeding  and  one  falling  below 
this.  All  required  home  study  : two,  1 hour  ; seven,  from  1 
to  2 hours ; three,  from  2 to  3 hours  daily.  On  the  average, 
35  hours  a week  is  the  usual  total  requirement,  but  3 schools 
required  from  41  to  45.  One  correspondent  said  he  was  ac- 
customed to  see  pupils  worked  60  hours  a week,  and  repro- 
bated the  practice  severely. 

We  hear  much  of  the  German  capacity  for  study;  but  it 
is  doubtful  if  there  be  much  difference  between  their  abilities 
in  this  direction  and  our  own.  They  work  the  boys  in  their 
gymnasia  almost  to  death.  What  must  be  the  rigor  of  a sys- 
tem which  so  fills  the  whole  life,  that  boys  of  17,  on  their 


8 


afternoon  walks,  talk  of  nothing  but  their  Greek  and  Latin 
classics ! I have  recently  conversed  with  two  gentlemen, 
graduates  of  the  gymnasia  at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder  and 
Halle.  The  former  gave  an  estimate  of  9 or  10  hours  of  daily 
work : while  the  latter,  a physician,  who  stood  at  the  head  • 
of  his  class  in  the  school,  named  8 or  9,  and  declared  6 to 
be  enough ; he  added,  however,  that  only  one  of  his  class 
died  directly  from  the  effects  of  application. 

As  regards  girls,  the  Prussian  Government  has  lately* 
taken  official  steps  to  ascertain  the  fact  in  question.  The 
conference  upon  superior  schools  for  girls,  held  August,  1878, 
in  the  Department  of  Public  Education,  reported  in  favor  of 
restricting  girls  from  10  to  16  years  of  age  to  a maximum 
of  30  hours  of  school  attendance  per  week;  the  younger 
ones,  'down  to  the  age  of  6,  were  to  be  limited  to  22  or  24 
hours.  Home  studies  were  to  be  restricted  to  one  hour  for 
the  youngest,  two  for  the  oldest,  and  one  and  one-half  for 
those  between.  It  should  be  said  that  the  declared  object  of 
such  schools  is  a liberal  one,  namely,  to  enable  the  pupils 
“ to  participate  in  the  intellectual  life  of  the  nation  ; ” which 
implies  a select  class  of  pupils,  inasmuch  as  the  avowed 
object  of  the  ordinary  German  school  (Volksschule)  is  to  fit 
common  people  for  a commonplace  life. 

Our  own  practice  is  to  keep  children  of  all  ages,  from  six  up 
to  16,  in  both  primary  and  grammar  schools,  the  same  num- 
ber of  hours  in  school ; namely,  26.  In  Boston  this  is  now 
reduced  to  25,  and  home  study  is  seldom  permitted.  There 
is  some  ground  for  supposing  that  this  state  of  things  — this 
placing  scholars  of  six  on  an  equal  footing  with  those  of  16  — 
is  the  result  of  oversight  rather  than  of  plan.  The  State 
Superintendent  of  Maine,  Hon.  William  G.  Corthell,  declares 
that  from  five  to  seven  years  of  age,  2 or  3 hours  a day  of 
earnest  study  are  enough;  for  those  from  seven  to  ten,  3 or  3J ; 
from  ten  to  twelve,  4 hours  ; for  all  older  pupils,  not  over  5 
hours,  or,  if  they  do  not  study  under  pressure,  6.  The  Super- 
intendent in  Providence,  Rev.  Daniel  Leach,  considers  the 
primary  school  hours  too  long  ; and  the  State  Superintendent 
of  New  York,  Hon.  William  Wood,  would  not  object  to  limit- 
ing the  time  of  the  schools  generally  to  2 hours  in  the  fore- 
noon and  2 in  the  afternoon  ; State  Superintendent  Downs  of 
New  Hampshire  says  that  from  four  to  ten  years  it  is  best  not 


9 


to  be  in  school,  in  full  intellectual  employment,  more  than 
3 hours  a day.  The  Medico-Legal  Society  of  New  York 
recommends  that  the  maximum  of  schooling  for  children 
under  eight  be  8 hours  a day. 

Finally,  children  in  kindergartens  are  allowed  the  greatest 
reasonable  freedom,  have  their  employment  changed  con- 
stantly, play  active  games,  and  sing  in  concert,  and  their 
operations  are  regularly  broken  by  a lunch  ; and  the  period  of 
time  which  children  of  from  4 to  7 can  be  kept  at  this  sort 
of  employment  is  held  to  be  about  3 hours,  from  9.30  to 
12.30  ; they  are  not  allowed  a second  session  in  the  day. 

An  effort  to  obtain  from  experienced  teachers  some  kind  of 
a law  of  mental  capacity  was  made  in  1860  by  Edwin  Chad- 
wick, C.B.,  well  known  for  his  efforts  in  connection  with  the 
English  half-time  system.  The  results  as  published  nearly 
agree  with  each  other.  One  teacher  replied  that  the  length 
of  time  children  could  attend  closely  and  voluntarily  to  a 
single  lesson  was,  from  5 to  7 years,  about  15  minutes ; from 
7 to  10  years,  about  20  minutes ; from  10  to  12  years,  about 
25  minutes ; from  12  to  16  or  18  years,  about  30  minutes. 
Relief  is  obtained,  and  fresh  interest  and  power  called  out, 
by  judicious  changes  of  subject  and  intermissions ; under 
which  conditions  he  found  that  children  of  the  four  groups 
of  ages  above  named  could  profitably  labor  mentally  not  over 
the  respective  periods  of  3,  3|,  4,  and  4|  hours  a day. 

This  statement  is  cited  simply  as  the  most  elaborate,  arid 
as  representing  the  general  tenor  of  a good  many.  In  view 
of  th e^ other  opinions  I have  cited,  it  is  impossible  to  call  it 
extreme ; and  the  care  with  which  the  circumstances  are 
stated  gives  it  a distinct  scientific  value. 

The  following  quotation  is  from  the  pen  of  the  late  Miss 
Mary  Carpenter  of  London,  well  known  for  her  thorough  and 
practical  devotion  to  the  welfare  of  the  poorer  classes  : — 

“ My  experience  has  been  both  among  the  children  of  the  educated 
classes  of  society  and  those  of  the  working  and  lower  classes.  The  con- 
dition and  wants  of  the  two  classes  are  very  different,  and  therefore  the 
same  general  principles  of  education  must  be  modified  to  the  circum- 
stances and  wants  of  each.  ...  A day  school  is  intended  to  supply  such 
parts  of  the  education  as  can  not  be  conducted  in  the  home.  The  nature 
of  the  day  school  must  be  modified  to  be  truly  supplementary  to  the 
home.  My  experience  respecting  the  education  of  the  superior  classes 
is  based  on  a much  esteemed  boarding  school  for  young  gentlemen, 
2 


10 


conducted  for  about  thirty  years  by  my  late  father,  Rev.  Dr.  Lane  Car- 
penter, in  which  I received  my  own  education,  and  latterly  gave  some 
assistance;  and  a boarding  school  for  young  ladies  subsequently  conducted 
by  myself  and  family  for  above  fifteen  years.  I have  always  paid  great 
attention  to  the  education  of  the  working  classes,  and  during  the  last 
thirteen  years  to  that  of  the  ‘ perishing  and  dangerous  classes.  ’ 

“1.  In  the  higher  or  more  cultivated  classes,  where  the  organization  is 
more  adapted  to  mental  exercise,  and  the  culture  of  the  intellectual  powers 
is  essential  to  after-life,  I do  not  think  eight  hours  per  diem  too  much 
to  be  employed  in  direct  instruction,  if  the  time  is  judiciously  divided 
and  the  teaching  good,  and  so  varied  in  subject  as  to  prevent  at  any 
time  an  undue  strain  on  the  mind.  Of  this  time  at  least  two  hours  for 
boys  and  three  hours  for  girls  should  be  occupied  with  lighter  pursuits, 
not  requiring  much  mental  effort  in  the  rudimentary  processes,  such  as 
penmanship,  drawing,  needle- work,  and  music;  nine  hours  should  be 
allowed  for  sleep.  Regular  walks  off  the  premises  daily  are  important, 
and  varied  muscular  exercises  on  them.  . . . 

“2.  I believe  three  hours  per  diem  of  good  scholastic  instruction  would 
be  amply  sufficient  for  the  children  of  the  working  classes,  and  of  the 
neglected  classes,  if  I may  so  call  that  class  below  them;  but  this  must 
be  supplemented  in  the  case  of  boys  by  two  or  three  hours  of  manual 
occupations,  involving  skill,  exactness,  manual  aptitude;  and,  in  that  of 
girls,  needle-work  and  other  domestic  occupations.  This  education 
should  be  continued  at  least  until  twelve  years  of  age,  if  possible  until 
fourteen,  wThen  boys  are  apprenticed,  and  should  be  supplemented  with 
all  by  one  and  a half  or  two  hours’  instruction  in  an  evening  school.  The 
study  of  languages  and  other  branches  of  knowledge  which  require  great 
length  of  time  is  not  necessary  for  this  class;  and  I believe,  from  obser- 
vation, that  this  time  well  employed  is  amply  sufficient.  It  is  exceeded 
at  present  in  common  day  schools  for  girls,  who  quite  equal  the  boys  who 
have  had  two  hours  longer.”  . . . 

Such  opinions  as  the  foregoing  have  a weight  proportioned 
to  the  intelligence  and  experience  of  their  authors.  Their 
general  tenor  seems  to  indicate  that  children  under  12  are 
capable  of  far  less  mental  work  than  adults,  — probably  not 
exceeding  three  or  four  hours  a day.  Or  in  other  words,  no 
labor  in  excess  of  this  limit  increases  the  mental  result  of  a 
day’s  work : it  rather  injures  the  quality  of  the  result. 

For  an  illustration  of  the  mental  and  moral  gain  resulting 
from  cutting  down  the  hours  of  study  in  a primary  school 
from  six  to  three  hours  daily,  the  reader  is  referred  to  notes 
C and  G,  at  the  close.  There  is  strong  evidence  (notes  G,  I, 
J)  tending  to  show  that  such  a simple  reduction  of  hours 
is  likely  to  be  extremely  unpopular  with  parents ; a state  of 
things  much  to  be  regretted,  but  necessary  to  be  taken  into 
account. 


11 


Study  combined  with  Wobk. 

In  the  case  of  children  at  work,  the  question  assumes  a 
different  form.  Their  occupation  protects  them  from  the 
perils  of  idleness,  thus  removing  one  chief  objection  to  short 
sessions.  And,  more  than  this,  there  seems  to  be  a special 
mutual  influence  between  the  school  and  the  factory,  which 
improves  the  quality  of  the  work  done  in  each. 

It  is  a remarkable  fact  that,  in  a great  many  instances,  the 
half-time  children  working  in  the  same  schools  with  full-timers 
are  known  to  accomplish  as  much  work  and  make  as  much 
progress.  This  may  be  seen  in  the  Report  for  1871  of  the 
Massachusetts  Bureau  of  Statistics  of  Labor,  and  in  the  original 
report  by  Mr.  Chadwick.  As  regards  the  standard  of  attain- 
ments, one  of  his  correspondents  stated  that  a class  of  children, 
say  of  seven  years,  taken  from  an  infant  school,  could  in  three 
years,  under  the  half-time  system,  be  brought  (with  full  con- 
trol of  the  means)  to  “reading  intelligently,  writing  fairly, 
and  spelling  correctly;  and  carried  in  arithmetic  as  far  as 
decimals,  exclusive  of  problems.”  Another  says  that,  of  21 
boys  and  girls  taken  direct  from  the  infant  school,  in  three  years 
16  had  reached  the  following  point : writing  a fair  hand,  spell- 
ing well,  reading  correctly  and  with  considerable  attention  to 
the  meaning,  working  sums  in  decimal  fractions  with  ease, 
showing  a fair  knowledge  of  the  general  geography  of  the 
world  and  the  particular  geography  of  Great  Britain,  a fair 
knowledge  of  the  great  leading  events  in  the  history  of 
Great  Britain,  parsing  and  analyzing  ordinary  simple  sentences. 

Another  says,  “ The  question  between  the  half-time  and 
full-time  system,  educationally  and  practically,  is  a question 
between  habits  of  concentrated  attention  during  a short 
time,  and  habits  of  more  or  less  diffused  attention  during  a 
longer  time.” 

Another:  u I attribute  the  equality  of  the  half-timers  to  the 
full-timers,  chiefly  to  the  habits  of  industrial  occupations,  to 
their  better  attention  to  what  they  set  about.  They  certainty 
come  to  their  school  work  with  better  habits  of  attention  than 
the  day  scholars.” 

Another:  “ I have  a decided  opinion  that  the  admixture  of 
industrial  occupation  tends  to  make  the  scholars  industrious 
in  the  school.  The  half-timers  do  not  trifle  or  waste  their 


12 


time  so  much  as  the  day  scholars.  The  half-timers  set  to 
their  writing  or  their  lessons  with  great  earnestness,  and  with 
more  business-like  qualities.” 

The  positive  advantage  of  combining  useful  labor  with 
study  is  manifold.  Long  before  boys  understand  the  meaning 
of  democracy,  they  know  the  difference  between  industry 
and  idleness,  productive  and  unproductive  employment,  and 
feel  the  strongest  impulses  to  practical  and  useful  activity. 
The  mind  must  be  taught  economy,  industry,  punctuality, 
attention ; the  hand,  skill  and  strength ; the  instinctive  feel- 
ings must  be  trained  to  a respect  for  labor  wherever  this  is 
possible.  It  is  undeniable  that  our  schools  are  defective  in 
this  respect.  They  tend  to  teach  the  boys  to  live  by  their 
wits  rather  than  their  hands.  In  the  case  of  girls,  the  culmin- 
ation of  their  results  is  the  production  of  teachers,  — girls  who 
leave  school  at  18,  with  their  heads  full  of  various  knowledge 
crammed  in  by  force,  but  unable  to  set  their  hands  to  a single 
thing  : the  only  thing  they  are  good  for  is  to  make  others  like 
themselves.  Surely  the  whole  blame  is  not  in  the  schools,  but 
largely  with  the  public.  Nevertheless  the  schools  must  set  the 
public  an  example  of  use  as  well  as  of  culture : it  will  be  fol- 
lowed. 

Conclusions. 

The  definition  with  which  this  paper  begins  renders  it 
unnecessary  to  discuss  the  condition  of  children  in  places 
where  there  are  no  manufactures.  For  us  the  questions  to  be 
solved  are  these : — 

1.  Will  the  12,000  factory  children  and  the  unnumbered 
children  in  other  light  employments  in  Massachusetts  be  best 
off  in  schools  kept  five  months  of  each  year  for  six  hours  a 
day,  or  in  schools  which  are  kept  ten  months  for  three  hours 
a day? 

In  the  opinion  of  the  writer  and  of  most  professional 
teachers  whom  he  has  consulted,  the  latter  alternative  is  very 
far  to  be  preferred,  as  respects  the  child’s  progress  in  study. 
The  law  requires  factory  children  to  attend  for  20  weeks  in 
a year,  i.e.,  five  months ; which  leaves  an  interval  of  seven 
months  to  forget  what  they  have  already  learned.  It  is  true 
that  the  country  population  of  New  England  was  brought 
up  on  18  weeks  of  schooling  a year ; but  the  circumstances 


13 


of  their  life,  and  the  universal  spirit  of  free  thought,  active 
intelligence,  and  enterprise,  prevailing  among  this  class  forty 
years  ago,  made  the  result  of  this  scanty  provision  a very 
different  one  from  that  which  is  to  be  expected  among  the 
rough,  unintelligent  children,  living  in  illiterate  homes,  who 
are  found  in  such  numbers  in  our  factories.  A vacation 
of  one  or  two  days  leaves  children’s  minds  in  a demoralized 
condition  ; a three-months’  summer  vacation,  among  children 
of  the  most  intelligent  class,  is  thought  a very  great  draw- 
back to  their  progress  in  study : seven  months  of  illiteracy 
can  not  but  seriously  injure  the  progress  of  children  who  are 
destitute  of  other  mental  stimulus  than  that  afforded  by  the 
schools.  Either,  therefore,  the  children  should  be  sent  for 
half  a day  all  the  year  round  to  the  ordinary  town  schools 
(which  is  not  at  all  impracticable),  or  else  special  half-time 
schools  should  be  established.  The  writer  would  recom- 
mend that  such  schools  should  be  established  in  a limited 
number,  say  6 or  12,  of  the  great  manufacturing  centres  of 
the  State ; and  that  care  should  be  taken  to  place  the  experi- 
ment in  the  hands  of  a person  or  persons  practically  ac- 
quainted with  the  system,  and  desirous  of  its  success. 

That  the  interests  of  mill  owners  would  suffer  by  the  ex- 
periment, does  not  seem  probable.  A certain  amount  of 
attention  to  details  of  certificates  will  be  necessary some 
annoyance,  but  scarcely  loss,  may  result  from  the  new 
arrangement. 

2.  Ought  the  State  to  forbid  the  labor  of  children  uncler 
12  or  under  15  ? 

In  strictness,  the  writer  is  not  bound  to  answer  this  ques- 
tion. Nevertheless,  as  it  is  clear  that  an  affirmative  answer 
would  destroy  the  ground  for  establishing  half-time  schools, 
the  following  is  offered  in  reply.  Our  State  occupies  a 
nearly  medium  or  neutral  position,  forbidding  labor  in  facto- 
ries before  the  age  of  10,  while  in  England  it  is  allowed 
(half-time)  at  8,  and  in  Prussia  not  before  12.  The  op- 
tion between  full-time  schools  for  20  weeks,  and  half-time 
schools  for  the  whole  period  of  labor,  is  also  allowed  in 
Massachusetts.  Hence  it  would  seem  that  the  conflict  lies 
between  those  who  assert  the  injurious  effect  of  manufactur- 
ing labor  upon  the  health  and  growth  of  children,  and  those 
who  claim  that  the  withdrawal  of  a considerable  amount  of 


14 


young  labor  will  injure  the  resources  of  working  families  and 
the  labor  supply  of  some  branches  of  manufacture.  The 
writer  declines  to  offer  a decision ; both  as  being,  at  pres- 
ent, unconvinced  that  factory  labor  is  severe  or  injurious  ^ 

to  any  considerable  extent  to  children  over  10  years  of  age 
working  on  half-time,  and  from  an  unwillingness  to  assume 
the  presentation  of  arguments  relating  to  the  exigencies  of  * 

trade,  manufactures,  or  domestic  economy  among  the  poor  in 
this  and  adjacent  States.  Such  arguments  should  be  sought 
from  political  economists. 

The  injury  supposed  to  result  to  the  health  of  children  is 
by  no  means  fully  proved.  Statistics  are  wanting ; and  to 
obtain  a proper  amount  would  require  a minute  and  system- 
atic examination  of  large  masses  of  children  in  factory  dis- 
tricts and  country  districts.  And  it  is  here  recommended 
that  such  examinations  be  authorized  and  paid  for  by  the 
State,  with  a view  to  establishing  a basis  for  future  legisla- 
tion. 

It  is  perhaps  not  out  of  place  to  add  one  further  recom-  . 
mendation ; namely,  that  the  laws  intended  to  compel  the 
attendance  at  school  of  all  children  from  8 to  14  years  of  age 
should  be  enforced  by  the  authority  of  the  State,  and  by 
truant  officers  of  its  own,  instead  of  being  left  to  the  discre- 
tion of  each  town  and  city. 

A certain  prejudice  exists  against  the  establishment  of 
schools  for  distinct  classes  of  the  population.  The  impor- 
tance of  maintaining  the  self-respect  of  all  classes  is  obvious  ; 
but  the  discussion  of  the  principle  is  here  omitted,  a quota- 
tion being  simply  made  from  the  Report  of  the  Fall  River 
School  Committee  for  1876-7.1 

“The  committee  desired  to  abolish  factory  schools  because 
the  reasons  for  their  establishment  were  sometimes  miscon-  \ 

strued,  and  a consequent  prejudice  excited  against  them,  by 
parents  who  were  expected  to  send  their  children  to  them. 

It  was  feared  their  tendency  was  to  impart  the  feeling,  that 
the  children  who  work  in  our  mills  are  expected  to  obtain 
only  the  minimum  amount  of  instruction,  and  that  to  be 
acquired  in  separate  schools;  and  that  by  this  process  of 
isolation  and  restricted  opportunities,  — deprived  of  the 
usual  methods  of  mingling  with  the  mass  of  the  pupils  of 


1 See  Note  E. 


the  city  on  equal  terms  and  under  similar  educational  condi- 
tions,— they  would  eventually  regard  themselves  as  a separate 
class  in  the  community,  occupying  a relatively  low  position 
in  society,  and  not  equally  responsible  with  its  more  favored 
members  for  good  order  and  prosperity.” 

NOTE  A. 

The  Naumkeag  half-time  school  was  visited  by  the  writer  in  the  after- 
noon of  Jan.  11,  1878.  The  hours  are  from  nine  to  half-past  eleven, 
a.m.,  and  from  one  to  half-past  three,  p.m. 

The  whole  number  belonging  to  the  school  is  66,  of  whom  59  are  half- 
time children  from  the  Naumkeag  Mills ; all  under  one  teacher.  Most  of 
the  children  are  of  French  Canadian  parentage,  and  have  to  be  taught 
English  in  the  school.  Three  were  from  a German  family,  recent 
immigrants,  not  operatives,  but  attending  the  school  in  order  to  learn 
English  before  entering  the  common  schools.  The  ages  range  from  ten 
to  fifteen,  and  the  previous  attainments  of  the  children  vary  at  least  as 
much  as  their  ages.  The  division  into  morning  and  afternoon  sections  is 
not  made  in  conformity  with  age,  but  to  suit  the  demands  of  their  occu- 
pation. The  exercises  are  so  ordered  as  to  have  as  few  as  possible  unem- 
ployed, and  much  tact  is  used  in  overcoming  the  essential  difficulties  of 
teaching  such  a class.  These  difficulties  are  much  increased  by  the  fact 
that  the  scholars  do  not  attend  continuously,  but  only  for  six  months  at  a 
time,  alternating  with  six  months  of  mill  work  on  full  time.  This  does 
not  constitute  a compliance  with  the  statute  of  1876,  ch.  52,  § 2,  which 
provides  that  ‘ ‘ a regular  attendance  during  the  continuance  of  such  em- 
ployment [i.e.,  work  in  factories]  . . . may  be  accepted  by  said  school 
committee  as  a substitute  for  the  attendance  herein  required.”  The 
question  being  put  to  those  present,  some  were  found  to  have  attended 
the  school  previous  to  the  present  half-year,  of  whom  two  were  in  their 
third  and  two  in  their  fourth  term..  It  seems  to  the  writer  impossible  to 
draw  conclusions  respecting  the  value  of  half-time  schools  from  so  small 
a number  of  scholars  in  an  ungraded  school,  under  such  peculiar  circum- 
stances as  to  language,  and  coming  as  they  do  but  half  the  year. 

NOTE  B. 

The  Indian  Orchard  school  was  supported  from  the  school  fund  as 
appropriated  by  the  city;  it  had  about  40  scholars,  20  at  each  session, 
aged  from  thirteen  to  fifteen  years ; 26  boys  and  14  girls  of  French  and 
Irish  parentage.  None  were  entirely  ignorant  of  English,  but  very  few 
knew  the  alphabet.*  C.  J.  Goodwin,  Superintendent  of  the  Indian  Or- 
chard Mills,  writes  as  follows:  — 

“We  found  it  better  to  employ  two  sets  of  children  in  the  mills,  em- 
ploying them  half  a day  each,  and  half  a day  at  school.  They  were 
desirous  to  learn,  made  rapid  progress,  were  punctual  and  well-behaved. 
They  made  more  progress  than  children  of  similar  ages  in  full-time 
schools.  Reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic  were  the  studies  pursued.  I 


16 


think  scholars  of  these  ages,  and  no  farther  advanced  in  their  studies, 
learn  as  rapidly  with  three  hours’  instruction  each  day  as  they  would 
with  more.  It  is  a disadvantage  to  be  out  of  school  six  months  at  a 
time,  for  those  who  are  just  commencing  their  studies.  The  scholars 
who  are  more  advanced  do  not  suffer  so  much  from  the  loss. 

“Our  half-time  school  was  a success;  but  a reduction  of  wages  was 
necessary,  to  conform  to  the  decrease  in  working  hours  from  eleven  to 
ten  [by  the  ten-hour  law],  and  the  parents  of  the  children  could  not 
support  them  if  allowed  to  work  but  half  a day.  So  the  school  was 
abandoned.” 

NOTE  C. 

[From  Rev.  J.  H.  Bradford,  Superintendent  Massachusetts  State  Primary 

School.] 

“You  ask  for  facts  on  the  half-time  system.  I believe  in  it  strongly, 
having  introduced  it  where  it  has  succeeded  for  seven  years.  The  school 
hours  were  from  two  till  five,  p.m.  All  the  morning  was  occupied  with 
manual  labor,  every  child,  however  small,  being  responsible  for  some- 
thing ; and  this  individual  responsibility  was  transferred  to  the  school- 
room, and  commendable  progress  was  made.  I have  not  tried  the  same 
child  first  with  one  system  and  then  with  the  other,  nor  am  I able  to  say 
positively  in  all  cases  that  children  will  learn  as  much  with  three  hours’ 
school  as  with  six;  but  I am  so  far  convinced  I was  right  in  the  matter, 
that  I should  not  wish  to  exchange,  even  if  school  was  the  sole  result 
desired.  When,  however,  the  fact  of  learning  how  to  work  is  added,  the 
result  is  very  much  more  favorable.  It  is  not  how  long , but  how  they  study, 
that  decides  the  result.  . . . These  children  finished  all  their  tasks  at 
half-past  one,  p.m.,  washing,  ironing,  housework,  cooking,  and  every  sort 
of  manual  labor;  nothing  more  was  done  at  it  until  next  morning,  except 
to  get  the  simple  supper,  and  wash  up  the  dishes.  The  evenings  were 
spent  in  exercise  and  reading,  and  I have  never  seen  children  of  a pri- 
vate family,  or  of  any  other  school,  accomplish  so  much.  They  did  not 
weary  of  work  or  school. 

“ The  plan  pursued  here  is  essentially  the  same.  The  division  work- 
ing in  the  morning  attend  school  in  the  afternoon,  and  vice  versa . The 
hours  from  two  till  five  I consider  best  for  school.  Children  feel  more 
like  study  then,  and  are  more  ready  to  work  in  the  morning.” 

NOTE  D. 

[From  Hon.  H.  F.  Hakrington,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  New  Bedford.] 

“ The  present  agents  of  our  mills  are  as  earnest  as  any  can  be  to  have 
the  statutes  obeyed  for  the  education  of  the  children  they  employ.  We 
have,  therefore,  had  a mill  school  in  highly  successful  operation  for 
between  three  and  four  years.  The  children  who  attend  are  sent  out  of 
the  mills  when  due  at  school,  and  received  again  when  their  term  of 
schooling  is  over.  They  carry  from  us  certificates  stating  when  they  will 
be  due  at  school  again,  which  are  recorded  on  the  mill  books,  and  hon- 
ored accordingly. 


17 


“ We  have,  every  year,  a class  of  half-time  schools  in  this  way,  — that 
schoolrooms  will  sometimes  be  so  over-crowded  that  the  only  resource  is 
to  ‘ride  and  tie,’ — take  half  the  scholars  into  school  one  half  the  day, 
and  the  rest  of  them  the  other  half.’  The  result  is  loss,  appreciable  loss, 
proportioned  to  the  difference  in  the  amount  of  schooling.  This  is  true, 
no  matter  what  grade  of  scholars  may  be  in  question,  from  the  youngest 
primarians  upward. 

“ Our  mill  scholars  do  not  forget  every  thing  they  have  learned  at  one 
term  of  schooling  during  the  succeeding  interval — not  by  any  means;  but 
we  have  a strong-minded,  suggestive  woman  for  their  teacher,  who 
stimulates  their  mental  curiosity,  and  thus  makes  strong  impressions  on 
their  minds.  She  tells  me  that  something  is  forgotten,  but  the  more 
prominent  and  material  facts  are  not.” 

NOTE  E. 

[From  N.  T.  Davis,  M.D.,  Fall  River.] 

“We  have  had  no  factory  schools  since  September,  1876.  While  in 
existence,  they  were  kept  without  vacation  through  the  year.  The  chil- 
dren were  divided  into  sections,  each  section  attending  thirteen  weeks. 
There  is  little  if  any  complaint  of  attempts  on  the  part  of  mill  managers 
to  evade  the  law.  Attempted  evasion  on  the  part  of  parents  is  common.” 

NOTE  F. 

[From  James  J.  Hanson,  Principal  of  Woburn  High  School.] 

“ The  system  you  speak  of  has  been  practised  in  Woburn  some  twelve 
years,  to  the  general  satisfaction  of  the  citizens.  The  advantages  are 
many,  and,  to  my  mind,  completely  outweigh  any  disadvantages  that 
might  arise.” 

In  a school  report  for  1875-76,  he  further  says,  — 

“ The  scholars  are  benefited  in  a sanitary  point  of  view,  as  they  are 
subjected  to  the  necessary  restraint  of  the  schoolroom,  and  to  the  ill 
effects  of  air  more  or  less  impure,  a less  number  of  hours  per  day.  They 
have  also  the  privilege  of  preparing  their  lessons  at  home  [in  fact,  they 
are  obliged  to  do  so],  and  thus  are  freed  from  doing  the  same  work  amid 
the  disturbing  influences  of  the  classroom.  The  teachers  are  also  re- 
lieved from  the  double  care  of  conducting  recitations,  and  watching  those 
who  are  studying  in  their  seats.  The  general  police  work  of  the  teachers 
is  considerably  less,  and  thus  more  time  is  given  for  thorough  teaching. 
...  A more  cheerful  obedience  in  the  pupils  is  thereby  secured  ; and,  as 
it  keeps  them  continually  reciting,  many  temptations  to  wrong-doing  are 
removed,  which  would  otherwise  present  themselves,  and  the  good  effects 
are  seen  in  a healthier  moral  #tone  in  the  school.  The  school  is  more 
extensively  patronized,  especially  by  boys,  many  of  whom  can  and  do 
work  a part  of  the  time  out  of  school,  and  assist  themselves  pecuniarily, 
and  still  have  ample  time  to  learn  their  lessons,  which  they  could  not  do 
under  the  long-session  system,  and  so  would  be  compelled  to  stay  away 
altogether.” 


3 


18 


NOTE  G. 

[From  A.  H.  Lewis,  formerly  Principal  of  Grammar  School  No.  5,  Elmira, 
N.Y.,  and  William  C.  Wey,  M.D.,  of  the  same  city.] 

Dr.  Wey  writes,  “During  the  time  of  my  connection  with  the  Board 
of  Education  in  this  city,  the  half-time  plan  was  adopted  in  the  primary 
department  of  one  of  the  schools.  The  working  of  the  system  was  so 
gratifying  to  the  members  of  the  Board  who  gave  the  subject  attention, 
and  to  the  principal  of  the  school,  that  its  continuance  was  regarded 
as  desirable  ; but  the  ignorant  prejudices  of  the  parents  of  the  children 
taught  in  that  way,  who  imagined  themselves  cheated  out  of  half  the 
advantages  their  progeny  had  a right  to  obtain  from  the  school  authori- 
ties, caused  so  much  dissatisfaction  in  the  district,  that  the  plan  was 
abandoned,  and  the  former  all-day  time  restored. 

‘ ‘ I watched  the  plan  pursued  by  Mr.  Lewis  from  beginning  to  end  ; 
and  to  say  that  I was  captivated  by  it  is  a feeble  expression  of  my  esti- 
mate of  its  moral,  physical,  and  intellectual  success.” 

From  Mr.  Lewis’s  statements  the  following  is  extracted  : — 

“ The  experiment  extended  to  the  entire  number  (over  120)  of  pupils 
registered  in  the  two  ‘ C primary  ’ rooms,  with  two  teachers.  These 
pupils  were  divided  into  nearly  equal  portions,  — one  attending  in  the 
morning,  the  other  in  the  afternoon.  Each  portion  was  again  subdivided 
into  three  divisions,  — one  of  which  received  literary  instruction  in  Room 
No.  1,  while  the  other  two  occupied  Room  No.  2 for  rest  and  exercise. 
The  teacher  in  Room  No.  1 had  charge  of  but  one  division,  consisting  of 
from  15  to  30  pupils  at  a time ; and  the  teacher  in  Room  No.  2 had  charge 
of  two  divisions  all  the  time.  One  division  passed  into,  and  another  out 
of,  each  room  every  fifteen  minutes. 

“ Each  teacher  attended  two  sessions  of  school,  of  three  hours  each, 
daily.  Under  the  old  way,  the  ‘ C primaries  ’ are  dismissed  half  an  hour 
before  the  regular  close  of  each  school  session.  But  our  teachers  pre- 
ferred full-time  sessions,  with  half  the  number  of  pupils.  The  labor  of 
teaching-  a class  is  incomparably  less  than  that  of  teaching  the  same  class, 
and  at  the  same  time  governing  two  others.  More  time  is  spent  in  the 
schoolroom,  but  the  drudgery  of  the  service  is  gone. 

“ As  regards  results,  one  hundred  pupils  were  promoted  during  the 
year,  of  whom  41  would  not  have  been  promoted  till  a year  later  if 
taught  under  the  old  plan,  thus  effecting  a saving  of  forty-one  years  of 
school  life.  In  consequence  of  the  large  promotion,  the  department  was 
so  much  relieved,  that  it  became  possible  to  return  to  the  all-day  or  full- 
time practice  of  the  other  schools;  and  in  deference  to  the  expressed 
wishes  of  the  Superintendent  and  District  Commissioner,  who  were 
anxious  to  pacify  a few  grumblers,  the  backward  step  was  taken  at  the 
commencement  of  the  next  school  year.  It  was  painfully  interesting  to 
me  to  note  the  resulting  changes,  to  which  I called  the  attention  of  the 
Board  in  a brief  report,  from  which  I now  quote  : — 

“ ‘ 1.  It  is  not  possible  to  maintain  as  perfect  order  and  discipline  this 
term  as  it  was  either  of  the  three  preceding  terms,  even  with  much 
greater  effort  on  the  part  of  teachers. 


19 


“ ‘ 2.  It  is  not  possible  to  secure  such  perfect  attention  either  in  the 
physical  or  intellectual  exercises  ; and,  as  a consequence,  less  satisfactory 
results  are  obtained  in  both  rooms. 

“‘3.  There  has  been  observed  more  quarrelling  among  these  small 
children  on  their  way  to  and  from  school  than  in  a whole  year  before.  ’ 

“ 1 can  not,  therefore,  avoid  the  conclusion,  that  in  every  way,  physi- 
cally, intellectually,  and  morally,  half-day  sessions  for  such  pupils  are  far 
preferable  to  all-day  sessions.” 

NOTE  II. 

[From  J.  M.  Gregory,  LL.D.  President  Illinois  Industrial  University.] 

“ The  replies  received  by  me  some  years  ago,  from  school  superin- 
tendents and  teachers,  in  response  to  a circular  asking  information  on 
the  half-time  school,  are  no  longer  in  my  possession ; but  I remember  the 
unanimity  with  which  the  testimony  came  from  all  who  had  tried  the 
experiment,  that  the  children  taught  in  the  half-time  schools  made  as 
good  progress  as  those  in  full  time.  The  best  and  fullest  trial  was  made 
in  some  of  the  ward  schools  of  Detroit,  Mich.,  where  the  comparison  was 
made  between  schools  taught  under  the  same  Board  and  regulations,  and 
under  a common  superintendent.  I think  that  I had  testimony  from 
twenty  or  more  places  where  the  experiment  had  been  tried,  and  with  the 
same  result  in  every  case.  It  was  not  stated  how  the  children  were  em- 
ployed the  other  part  of  the  day.” 

NOTE  I. 

[From  Hon.  William  Wood,  President  of  the  Board  of  Education,  New- 

York  City.] 

“ Allow  me  to  say  generally  that  the  dicta  you  lay  down  are  more 
adapted  to  the  condition  of  Boston  and  to  other  New-England  manu- 
facturing towns  than  to  this  city.  Here  we  have  no  cotton  mills,  no 
power-loom  factories.  We  have  manufactories  of  various  sorts, — brew- 
eries, distilleries,  carriage  factories,  boiler  factories,  etc.  ; but  I don’t 
think  that  there  is  that  kind  of  demand  for  boy  and  girl  operatives  which 
there  is  in  cotton  mills,  weaving  factories,  calico  print  works,  etc.  . . . 
Again:  on  principle,  I am  opposed  to  any  legislation  which  would  facili- 
tate the  employment  of  children  under  fourteen  in  factories  of  any 
kind.  . . . 

“ So  far  as  my  own  opinion  goes,  I would  be  better  pleased  with  two 
sessions  of  two  hours  each  in  our  common  schools  than  with  one  of  three, 
and  another  of  two,  as  at  present;  but  this  would  by  no  means  meet  the 
views  of  the  large  body  of  our  poorer  citizens,  who  in  reality  use  our 
schools,  especially  our  primary  schools  and  departments,  as  quasi  nurse- 
ries. They,  both  father  and  mother,  have  to  work  for  a living;  and  it  is, 
they  think,  a great  blessing  to  have  their  children  well  cared  for  during 
five  working  hours  at  least. 

“ Our  school  system  is  devised  for  the  wants  of  our  enormous  popula- 
tion as  it  exists,  and  it  would  derange  it  greatly  to  have  half-time  day 
schools.  The  place  of  such  schools  is,  to  a certain  extent,  supplied  by 
our  common  evening  schools,  which  are  carried  on  from  the  first  Monday 
in  October  to  the  end  of  February.” 


20 


NOTE  J. 

[From  Hon.  J.  L.  Pickard,  lately  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Chicago.] 

“ In  reply  to  your  query  regarding  half-day  sessions  in  Chicago  schools,  j 

I must  say  that  they  have  not,  in  the  main,  proved  successful.  In  certain 
neighborhoods  of  an  intelligent  constituency,  the  result  of  the  experiment 
was  for  a time  gratifying.  Since,  however,  the  establishment  of  these 
half-day  schools  was  the  result  of  insufficient  accommodations,  and  since 
the  excess  of  population  was  greatest  in  the  poorer  districts,  where  home- 
training is  almost  entirely  neglected,  the  average  result  of  the  experiment 
has  not  encouraged  its  extension,  or  warranted  its  continuance.  For  the 
child  restricted  to  a half-day’s  instruction,  there  seemed  to  be  nothing 
left  for  the  other  half-day  but  the  lessons  of  the  street.  Many  children 
have  been  found  at  the  end  of  a year  but  little  wiser,  and  often  less  stu- 
dious, than  at  the  beginning.  . . . 

“ We  have  had  no  experience  in  schools  for  manufactory  children, 
except  in  evening  school  work,  which  has  always  proved  beneficial  as 
well  as  beneficent. 

“ An  experiment  is  just  now  being  tried  with  schools  for  any  who 
can  not  be  bound  by  the  ordinary  rules  of  attendance,  and  with  promise 
of  success.  These  schools  are  ungraded,  and  admit  — for  such  hours  as 
pupils  can  come  — those  who  are  kept  from  full-time  schools.  The 
instruction  is  individual.” 

NOTE  K. 

[From  Hon.  W.  T.  Harris,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  St.  Louis.] 

“ To  some  extent,  we  have  tried  it  in  the  primary  grades  (first  year’s 
work)  for  three  years.  Teachers,  for  the  most  part,  think  that  pupils  learn 
about  as  much  the  first  year  in  half-time  schools  as  in  whole  time.  One 
set  of  pupils  comes  in  the  morning,  and  another  in  the  afternoon.”  — See 
Keport  for  1874-75,  p.  23. 

The  report  referred  to  contains  the  following  statements : — 

“ The  policy  of  half-time  schools  is  under  trial  at  present  in  a few 
schools  whose  accommodations  are  inadequate  to  the  wants  of  their  dis- 
tricts. This  is  tried  only  in  the  first  year  of  the  primary  school.  One 
set  of  pupils  comes  in  the  morning,  and  another  one  in  the  afternoon.  In 
this  way  the  capacity  of  the  school  is  greatly  increased  without  much 
additional  expense  to  the  Board.  An  extra  teacher  is  employed  to  assist 
the  regular  ones  in  instructing  the  new  classes  formed.  The  observation 
made  in  Chicago,  that  the  progress  of  the  pupils  in  their  studies  is 
reported  to  be  nearly  as  rapid  as  by  the  whole-time  plan,  is  generally 
indorsed  by  our  own  teachers.”  — Page  23. 


NOTE  L.  f 

[From  an  address  delivered  by  Edwin  Chadwick,  before  the  British  Social  r 

Science  Association,  1877.] 

“ Certain  large  institutions  for  the  care  of  destitute  orphan  children  in  / 

England  have  had  their  death  rates  steadily  reduced  to  about  three  in 


21 


one  thousand,  which  is  nearly  one-fourth  of  the  rate  of  mortality  for 
school  ages. 

“ The  schools  are  on  the  half-time  principle,  which  we  introduced 
with  the  factory  acts,  as  preventive  of  the  physical  injury  done  by  over- 
sedentary  work  in  the  long-time  schools;  and  I may  add,  that  by  a better 
adjustment  of  the  book  teaching  to  the  children’s  mental  powers  of 
receptivity,  and  by  the  freshening  up  of  the  faculties  by  brisk  bodily 
exercises  in  the  voluntary  drill,  these  children,  though  naturally  of  an 
inferior  mental  type,  are  got  well  through  the  three  R’s  in  less  than 
four  years  as  against  seven  in  the  common  elementary  schools,  and  at 
one-half  the  cost  for  teaching  power,  and  with  the  economical  outcome , 
that  the  efficiency  of  three  is  imparted  to  two  for  industrial  occupations.” 

NOTE  M. 

[From  M.  F.,1  Inspector  of  Volksschulen;  dated  Karlsruhe,  Nov.  30,  1877.] 

“ The  elementary  school  called  Volksschule  is  in  the  Duchy  of  Baden, 
regularly  or  legally  a half-day  school.  A completely  normal  Volksschule 
in  Baden  would  be  arranged  as  follows : — 

“1.  The  obligatory  age  for  attending  school  being  fixed  at  from  the 
seventh  to  the  fourteenth  year  inclusive,  there  will  be  eight  classes,  each 
receiving  entirely  distinct  instruction. 

“2.  To  every  teacher  are  given  two  classes,  to  one  of  which  he  gives 
instruction  in  the  forenoon , to  the  other  in  the  afternoon ; to  each  sixteen 
hours  a week.  The  school  time  is  fixed  to  the  hours  of  seven  to  ten  and 
one  to  four  o’clock  (or  twelve  to  three) ; in  winter  time  from  eight  to 
eleven  instead  of  seven  to  ten.  To  such  a school  four  teachers  are 
assigned ; and  one  of  this  class  will  be  erected  in  any  place  where  four 
hundred  scholars,  or  thereabouts,  are  ready  for  this  kind  of  instruction. 
In  most  villages  this  plan  will  naturally  be  modified.  Where  there  is 
only  one  teacher  (i.e.,  where  there  are  120  scholars,  or  less),  he  instructs 
in  the  forenoon  the  scholars  of  the  five  upper  or  elder  years  together ; in 
most  subjects  in  two  or  three  divisions.  In  the  afternoon  come  the  three 
lower  classes  in  two  divisions. 

“Where  there  are  two  teachers,  one  takes  as  first  class  the  youngest 
year,  as  second  class  the  second  and  third  years : the  other  teacher  takes 
as  third  class  the  fourth  and  fifth  years,  and  as  fourth  class  the  three  eld- 
est years. 

“Where  there  are  three  teachers  (360  scholars  or  less),  one  has  the 
first  year  as  Class  1,  and  the  second  as  Class  2;  the  second  teacher  has  the 
third  year  as  Class  3,  and  the  fourth  and  fifth  as  Class  4;  the  third  teacher 
has  the  sixth  year  as  Class  5,  and  the  seventh  and  eighth  years  as  Class  6. 
Each  teacher  instructs  in  the  morning  his  older  scholars,  and  the  younger 
in  the  afternoon. 

“An  experience  of  many  years  has  produced  the  general  conviction 
among  school  authorities  and  teachers,  that,  instead  of  instructing  too 
many  or  too  different  grades  of  scholars  together  for  twenty-six  or  thirty 
hours  a week,  it  is  better  to  divide  them,  and  to  give  only  sixteen  hours 

1 For  this  and  the  following  communication,  I am  indebted  to  the  kindness 
of  Dr.  George  Yarrentrapp  of  Frankfort-on-the-Main. 


to  each.  In  this  respect,  we  go  so  far,  that  where,  for  instance,  in  a 
school  with  three  teachers,  the  fourth  class  has  upwards  of  60  scholars, 
this  class  will  again  be  divided  in  two  divisions  or  years,  and  each  divis- 
ion receive  instruction  for  only  two  hours  a day.  In  such  a case,  the 
teacher  has  to  instruct,  in  one  day,  three  classes,  one  after  the  other. 
Even  this  arrangement  is  judged  a good  shift  where  there  is  a deficiency 
of  teachers.  It  is  a principle  to  give  to  the  teacher  in  one  class  as  few 
different  grades  of  age  as  may  be;  if  possible,  only  one.  If  the  necessary 
number  of  teachers  exists5,  each  child  shall  receive  sixteen  hours  of  in- 
struction a week.  Besides  this,  boys  have  from  their  ninth  year  two 
hours  of  gymnastics,  and  girls  from  their  tenth  year  four  hours  of  needle- 
work, a week. 

“ All  these  arrangements  refer  in  general  to  villages  and  cities.  The 
local  authorities  are  legally  obliged  to  have  at  least  one  teacher  for  120 
scholars.  If  the  authorities  of  a place  appoint  more  than  one  teacher, 
they  obtain  the  right  of  presentation,  or  nomination,  and  transform  the 
school  to  an  enlarged  Volksschule.  In  the  latter,  the  teacher  has  gen- 
erally only  one  class,  the  scholars  of  the  same  age.  These  classes  are 
instructed  during  the  whole  day,  making  twenty-six  to  thirty-six  hours  a 
week.  The  results  of  such  schools  are  naturally  far  higher  than  in  the 
simple  Volksschule. 

“In  Karlsruhe  there  is,  besides  the  enlarged  Volksschule , a simple 
one,  with  half-day  school  time,  and  with  a peculiar  arrangement,  permit- 
ting the  scholars  to  study  their  home  lessons  for  an  hour  a day  in  the 
schoolrooms,  under  the  supervision  of  the  teacher:  this  is  for  the  benefit 
of  those  who  have  no  place,  nor  light,  nor  time,  for  study  at  home.  The 
teachers  receive  a special  compensation  for  this  service.  This  practice  is 
new,  but  seems  to  be  good.  . . . 

“The  vacations  of  the  Volksschule  must  not  exceed  eight  weeks  a 
year.  Exceptionally,  a prolongation,  not  exceeding  two  weeks,  may  be 
allowed  for  the  three  oldest  years  by  the  District  School  Board,  for 
attending  to  agricultural  labor:  this  is  not  allowed  in  industrial  dis- 
tricts.” 

NOTE  N. 

[From  E.  H.,  dated  Cassel,  Nov.  16,  1877.] 

‘ ‘ You  are  quite  right  in  supposing  that  the  arrangements  mentioned 
by  Dr.  Lincoln  [half-time  schools]  do  not  generally  exist  in  Prussia,  or 
at  least  only  by  way  of  exception.  I add,  — 

“1.  The  general  regulation  of  Oct.  15,  1872,  established  by  the  De- 
partment of  Public  Worship  and  Education,  relating  to  the  arrange- 
ment, task,  and  aim  of  the  Prussian  Volksschule , permits  (No.  3)  the 
half-day  school  ‘in  cases  where  the  number  of  children  in  one  school 
does  not  exceed  80,  or  where  the  schoolroom  is  not  sufficient  for  even  a 
smaller  number,  and  the  conditions  do  not  permit  the  appointment  of  a 
second  teacher,’  etc.  In  such  a school  one  teacher  has  to  instruct  all 
the  scholars  in  two  classes,  one  after  the  other,  thirty- two  hours  a week, 
of  which  twenty  are  given  to  the  upper  class,  and  twelve  to  the  lower. 

“2.  In  accordance  with  the  regulation  (dated  March  9, 1839)  concerning 


23 


occupations  of  young  persons  employed  in  manufactures,  the  law  of 
May  16,  1853,  by  which  said  regulation  was  amended,  and  the  instruc- 
tion of  the  Ministers  of  Commerce,  of  Education,  and  of  the  Interior, 
dated  Aug.  18,  1853,  relating  to  the  execution  of  this  Act,  juvenile 
workmen  employed  in  manufactures,  beginning  with  the  age  of  twelve 
years,  must  receive  school  instruction  for  three  hours  daily. 

“3.  In  a few  districts  the  absence  of  schoolchildren  may  be  sanc- 
tioned during  the  summer  months,  for  tending  the  cattle,  for  agricultural 
work,  etc. , provided  that  their  parents  can  not  dispense  with  their  assist- 
ance, that  the  children  are  older  than  eleven  years,  that  they  have  attended 
school  regularly  till  that  time,  and  that  the  results  of  their  instruction 
are  at  least  of  average  excellence:  but  in  any  case,  with  the  restriction 
that  they  must  attend  school  twelve  hours  a week,  which  will  be  fixed 
(absolutely  required) . 

“4.  In  summer,  unbroken  vacations  of  more  than  four  to  six  weeks 
are  not  allowed.” 

NOTE  O. 

Rev.  G.  F.  Siegmund  of  New  York  states  that  he  was  well  acquainted 
with  a half-time  school  at  Celle,  in  Prussia,  where  his  father  was  in- 
spector of  schools.  The  scholars  were  children  of  agricultural  laborers; 
they  attended  school  from  seven  to  ten  a.m.,  and  were  therefore  able  to 
work  three-quarters  of  a day,  for  which  they  received  five  sgr.,  or  half 
a man’s  wages.  There  were  fifty  children  and  one  master.  The  results 
were  extremely  good,  and  the  children  learned  as  much  as  those  in  the 
Volksschulen.  At  Annaberg  there  was  a regularly  formed  four-class 
half-time  school,  with  which  he  was  personally  acquainted:  the  results 
were  equal  to  those  of  whole-time  schools  “ because  they  had  an  excellent 
master.” 

NOTE  P. 

[From  Augustus  D.  Small,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Salem,  Mass.] 

“ You  ask  concerning  the  compliance  of  our  school  with  the  statute 
(chap.  52,  Acts  1876).  You  will  find  that  attendance  at  a half-time 
school  for  twenty  weeks  is  all  that  the  law,  at  the  option  of  the  qommit- 
tee,  requires.  If  the  committee  should  not  allow  this  plan  of  half-day  at- 
tendance, they  would  thereby  oblige  every  child  (conditions  specified)  to 
attend  all  day  for  twenty  weeks.  The  committee  took  the  easiest  course, 
I think,  in  the  establishment  of  the  half-time  school.  Had  a more"' rigid 
course  been  attempted,  the  distress  produced  and  the  ill-feeling  en- 
gendered would  probably  soon  have  overthrown  what  was  accomplished. 
I feel  less  concern  about  the  half-timers  than  about  the  no-timers.  I 
feel  sure  that  there  are  from  fifty  to  a hundred  children,  that  are  grow- 
ing up  in  ignorance  here,  who  do  not  attend  school  for  one  or  two  years 
4f  at  a time.  The  law  (chap.  52)  is  favorable  to  the  would-be  evader,  and 

very  hard  to  enforce.  The  onus  probandi  is  thrown  upon  the  complainant, 
t He  must  be  able  to  prove  his  allegation. 

^ “ The  law  should  be  so  constructed  that  the  defendant  must  be  able  to 

prove  his  school  attendance.  A child  moving  here  from  another  place 


24 


\ 

\ 


may  or  not  have  attended  school  there.  He  can  not  be  identified  with- 
out great  cost,  if  at  all;  and  his  record  can  not,  therefore,  be  questioned 
for  a year.  At  the  end  of  that  time,  he  moves  on  to  some  other  locality 
to  evade  the  law  again.  If,  when  challenged,  he  had  to  produce  testi- 
mony of  school  attendance,  the  case  would  be  much  easier  for  us  to 
handle. 

“ Then  I think  that  provision  should  be  made  for  the  temporary  relief 
of  those  kept  by  family  want  from  school,  and  that,  without  holding 
out  incentives  to  the  lazy  to  become  objects  of  charity.  The  whole  ques- 
tion is  a difficult  one,  I know;  but  until  the  law  is  improved,,  at  these 
points  at  least,  it  will  be  inoperative  in  those  very  cases  where  it  should 
be  most  effective.” 


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